2. What is a stromatolite? Why are they thought to be relevant enough to mention in your book?
3. What are the underlying principles of Natural Selection? How does Natural Selection increase biologic diversity?
4. Become familiar with relevant "dates" n the history of life on earth. What is the proposed age of the earth? How old are oldest prokaryotic fossils? How old are the oldest Eukaryotic Fossils? How many years ago was the Plant lineage believed to have originated? How many years ago was the Animal lineage believed to have originated?
5. What are the differentiating characteristics of Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya. Which domain did the organism represented by the oldest known fossil belong to?
6. What is a phylogenetic tree? What is meant by "monophyletic"? What is "lineage by descent"? Construct a phylogenetic tree describing the relationships of fish, reptiles, birds and mammals.
7. How is the "Five Kingdom System" inconsistent with evolutionary data? How is the "Three-domain system" consistent with evolutionary data?
9. What was/is the Oparin and Haldane model of how life might have initiated in the reducing atmosphere of early earth?
10. What was the contribution of Stanley Miller and Harold Urey in supporting the Oparin/Haldane model? What experimental evidence supports the possibility of each of the 4 steps of the Oparin/Haldane model?
11. What is the experimental evidence for non-biological formation of polymers?
12. What is the current hypothesis for the initial formation of genetic material?
13. Describe the chemical make up of the early earth atmosphere. When and how did O2 (molecular oxygen) appear? What is the biochemical mechanism that produces O2 and the biochemical mechanism that consumes O2; describe these at the level of the chemical reaction.
2. What is a species? Definition? What is the classification system used to describe separate species? Is this classification system based on evolutionary principles?
3. How many prokaryotic species are known? How many are estimated to exist? What mechanisms have been at work to generate so many species?
4. Identify 15 environments that prokaryotes exist in. Identify 5 environments prokaryotes do not exist in. What are the physical limits of the earth's "Biosphere"; can prokaryotes survive in all spaces of the Biosphere?
5. Did all these species derive from a single common ancestor? Are all known prokaryotic species evolutionarily related? What arguments can you make to justify your answer?
6. What are some criteria for recognizing different prokaryotes as distinct species or distinct groups of related species?
7. What are Prokaryotes? What are the two major divisions? What are Eukaryotes? What are the differences?
8. What is the justification for placing the ancestor of all living organisms between Bacteria and Archaea? Or, asking this another way, what is the justification for assuming that Archaea and Eukarya share a common ancestor that is distinct from Bacteria?
9. Be thoroughly familiar with the cellular organization of a generalized prokaryote.
10. Compare / contrast the cell membrane and cell wall of prokaryotes. What is the function / purpose of the cell wall? What is the function / purpose of the cell membrane? Understand the molecular composition of both.
11. Describe the organization of DNA in a Prokaryote. How does this differ from Eukaryotic DNA?
12. How do prokaryotes derive energy?
13. What is the hypothesis regarding the evolution of Energy Metabolism in early Prokaryotes?
14. What is carbon fixation? What was the source of carbon for fixation in early prokaryotes?
15. What is the hypothesis for the evolution of photosynthesis in early prokaryotes?
16. What is the hypothesis for the mechanism and process that initiated aerobic life?
17. What prokaryote division are mitochondria derived from?
18. What prokaryote division are chloroplasts derived from?
19. Define Autotrophic, Heterotrophic, Phototrophic, Chemotrophic, Photoautotrophic, Chemoautotrophic, Photoheterotrophic, Chemoheterotrophic. Using these terms, how would you describe the habits of a Cyanobacteria, of the bacterium E. coli, of an extreme thermophile?
20. Develop a definition of behavior that applies equally well to prokaryotes and eukaryotes; identify 10 different behaviors prokaryotes are capable of.
21. Describe chemotactic behavior in bacteria? What other taxes do prokaryotes (as well as other organisms) display? What is a taxis?
22. Describe the nature of a bacteria flagellum. How do bacteria flagella and Eukaryotic flagella differ (describe each and then compare the differences).
23. What contribution do bacteria make in converting gaseous nitrogen (N2) to forms of nitrogen that can be assimilated into biologically useful molecules? What biochemicals contain Nitrogen?
24. How many genes (approximately) does a bacterium have? How many genes does a vertebrate (e.g. human) have? Why do vertebrates have so many more genes than bacteria?
25. Describe several different ways by which bacteria reproduce. How do bacteria exchange genetic material?
26. Name 2 ways in which bacteria reproduce?
27. How do bacteria exchange genetic material and how do they generate genetic diversity?
28. How do prokaryotes eliminate metabolically derived toxins? What are metabolically derived toxins?
29. How do prokaryotes breath?
30. What keeps prokaryotes living in fresh water from blowing up? What keeps prokaryotes living in salt water from shriveling?
31. What are viruses, viroids and prions? Are they living?
2. How many species of Eukaryotes are there?
3. What are the major divisions of the Eukarya? How do these divisions relate to the old view of Kingdoms? Which divisions are consistent with the old view of Kingdoms? Which divisions are not consistent with the old view of Kingdoms?
4. What are Protists? Why is the term protist in consistent with classification based on Evolutionary principles?
5. What is the major difference between a Protist, a plant, a fungus and an Animal?
6. What is the justification for differentiating between Ciliates, Plants, Fungi and Animals?
7. Why is Giardia classified as a "primitive" eukaryote?
8. What is the hypothesized origin of the nuclear membrane?
9. What does "Endosymbiont Theory" refer to?
10. What are organelles? What organelles do Prokaryotes have? What organelles do Eukaryotes have?
11. What is the hypothesized origin of organelles? What is the experimental evidence that supports this hypothesis? What bacterial group are mitochondria thought to derive from? What bacterial group are chloroplasts thought to derive from?
12. What do haploid and diploid refer to? What does "alternation of generations" refer to?
13. Suggest the selective advantage of organelles and a compartmentalized nucleus?
14. What is a phylogenetic tree? Construct a phylogenetic tree that represents the evolutionary relationship of Giardia, Euglena, Paramecia, the brown alga Postelsia palmatus, the green alga Ulva, a daisy, corn, the mushroom Aminita muscaria, yeast, the jelly fish Aurelia aureta, and a lizard.
15. What does "monophyletic" mean? Are Protists monophyletic? Why?
16. Answer questions under chapters 27 and 28 that related to flagella, and to comparisons between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
17. How do Eykaryotes exchange genetic material? Contrast this with how Prokaryotes accomplish the same? How is genetic diversity generated in Eukaryotes?
2. Why is it justified to consider Plants as a Kingdom?
3. There are multiple algal-like organisms, including brown algae, red algae, golden algae, diatoms and green algae. Each of these types represents a distinct, monophyletic lineage; and Plants are believed to have evolved from one of these lineages. From which algal lineage did plants evolve. Justify this relationship by at least 5 criteria.
4. Most plants are terrestrial organisms. Identify several problems living organisms face in the terrestrial environment that they would not face in an aquatic environment; identify adaptations plants have evolved to cope with these features.
5. What are the 4 major divisions of Plants? Compare them based on the following criteria...
7. Compare different methods of gamete dispersal among the 4 major divisions of Plants. Which require the most energy? Which require the least energy? In Bryophytes, how does sperm travel from Antheridia to Archegonia?
8. Are Plant spores diploid or haploid?
9. Compare different methods of seed dispersal among the 4 major divisions of Plants. What tissue enhances seed dispersal in Angiosperms?
10. Give 5 examples of co-evolution between Plants and Animals.
11. What is a gametophyte? What is a sporophyte? Which is diploid?
12. What does "alternation of generations" refer to? What do "gametophyte dominance" and "sporophyte dominance" refer to?
13. Review the steps of meiosis and mitosis. In what tissues do each occur? In which and at which step does genetic rearrangement occur?
14. What is similar, what is different between plant cells and animal cells? What is different between cellulose and starch?
15. Are all Plants Autotrophs? Give an example of a Heterotrophic Plant.
16. How does photosynthesis work? In what ways are chloroplasts and mitochondria similar? What is the difference between C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways; what are the selective advantages of each?
2. Plant Body Organization, what are the...
3. Explain "plasmodesmata" and "cytoplasmic continuum".
4. What do the terms "monocot" and "dicot" refer to. Give 3 examples of each.
5. Where does growth occur in a dicot?.
6. What is the difference between cambium and Cambrian?
7. What is the difference between stem and meristem?
8. What and where are...
10. Know the anatomy of root, shoot and leaf. Be prepared to follow the vascular tissue from a root tip into a leaf.
11. Regarding leaf anatomy, what are stomata, epidermis, cuticle, guard cells, parenchyma, veins? Which cells are photosynthetic? Which cells are not? Are stomata more likely on the upper or lower leaf surface?
12. In a dicot, contrast the position of vascular tissue in root and shoot. What is the positional relationship between xylem and phloem in each?
13. In a stem, how does lateral growth occur? What is the relationship between vascular cambium, xylem and phloem?
14. You cut down a tree and look at the x-section of the trunk/stem. Where are living cells located? What is the cellular origin of the majority of woody material in the middle of the trunk?
15. What are lignin and cellulose? How do plants use each?
16. Are xylem vessels alive or dead? What are sieve tubes, and are they living or dead?
17. Describe the process in a root of how a single site of cell division produces all the different tissue and cell types in the root.
18. In 1988, you stood in front of a 6 foot tall tree that was 3 inches in diameter. You hammered a nail into the trunk (stem) of the tree, 3 feet above the ground. The nail was 4 inches long; you hammered it in so that only 2 inches are exposed. In 1999 you returned to the tree which was then 20 feet tall and 10 inches in diameter. How high above the ground was the nail when you returned? Could you see the nail? Can you justify/explain your 1999 observations?
19. Describe the process of growth in a plant. How does the addition of cells occur? How does root grow through the soil? What roles "cell division", "cell elongation" and "maturation" play in plant growth?
20. A cell has a volume of 0.1 cubic millimeter. It divides by mitosis. Immediately after division, what is the combined volume of the two resulting cells?
2. For the vast majority of plants, what is the source of the following molecules...
4. What biologically important molecules contain N (nitrogen), P (phosphorous), S (sulfur)? What is the role of S in stabilizing protein structure?
5. Explain the statement: "Plants are primary producers."
6. What are the contributions of bacteria and fungi in plant nutrition?
7. What is a "root nodule"? What are Mycorrhizae? What are their specific roles in plant nutrition?
8. What is the difference between a carniverous plant, a parasitic plant and an epiphyte? Give examples of each.
9. What is the role of...
11. Describe the "nitrogen cycle".
12. The plasma membrane is said to be "semi-permeable". What is the "plasma membrane", and why is it said to be "semi-permeable".
13. Define and describe "diffusion", osmosis, passive transport.
14. Define and describe "active transport".
15. What are "hydrogen pumps"? What is the role of hydrogen pumps in nutrient uptake by roots? Define and describe "co-transport".
16. What is the cellular anatomy of a root? How do salts and minerals get from the soil into the root vascular tissue (routes and molecular mechanisms)? How does water get from the soil into the root vascular tissue (routes and molecular mechanisms)? What is the role of Mycorrhizae in this process?
17. What is the cellular anatomy of a leaf? How is water transported from root to leaf (routes, molecular and physical mechanisms)? How are salts and minerals transported from root to leaf (routes, molecular and physical mechanisms)? What is the driving force for this movement? Why would an air bubble in the vascular tissue interfere with this movement?
18. What is the "cohesion-tension" theory of water movement from root to leaf? What is the role of hydrogen bonding, surface tension and evaporation in this movement?
19. How does transpiration contribute to (1) movement of water from root to leaf and (2) compensation for heat stress?
20. In a giant Sequoia, water must travel from the root several hundred feet upwards, seemingly defying gravity. How is this column of water supported and maintained?
21. Xylem conducts _______; while phloem conducts ________.
22. What are stomata? What is transpiration? What is the role of stomata in regulating transpiration? What environmental signals do stomata respond to? What is the mechanism that causes stomata to open and close?
23. List 5 different locations of chloroplasts in a plant. Discuss the role of chloroplasts in transpiration.
24. What is the driving force for the bulk movement of fluid through phloem?
2. What processes regulate flower bud formation (review Photoperiodism and Phytochrome section of Chapter 39)?
3. What are meristem identity genes and organ identitiy genes? What do they control?
4. While many flowers have all their parts (4), many do not. What flower terms apply to each of the following conditions?
7. Describe "gametogenesis" in male and female reproductive organs in angiosperms. When does meiosis occur? How many cells are produced per each megasporocyte and microsporocyte?
8. Are angiosperm gametophytes multicellular or unicellular?
9. How is it that each male gametophyte produces multiple sperm cells while each female gametophyte produces only one egg cell?
10. Identify as many different ways as you can think of by which pollen gets from the male reproductive organ to female reproductive organ in plants. What does the term "insect-plant coevolution" refer to?
11. What events occur immediatly following fertilization?
12. How is self fertilization prevented?
13. What is the difference between "Sporophytic self-incompatibility" and "Gametophytic self-incompatibility"?
14. What does "double fertilization" refer to in plant reproduction?
15. What is endosperm and what is its function? Compare the fate of endosperm in a monocot and a dicot?
16. What is "fruit"? What is the origin of fruit tissue? What selective pressures are thought to be important that govern the tremendous variety of fruits?
17. What environmental or external factors influence seed germination? What environmental or external factors influence plant growth?
18. What selective pressures have driven the diversification of flower shape and structure?
19. What selective pressures have driven the diversification of fruit shape and structure?
2. How do plant hormones influence plant physiology or growth? Consider mechanisms at the molecular, cellular and organismic (plant) levels.
3. What are the roles of auxin and cytokininin in regulating plant growth.
4. Define "positive and negative geotaxis", "positive and negative phototaxis". Discuss the specific mechanisms governing these processes.
5. What experiments led to the identification of hormonal control of phototropism in monocots?
6. What is the role of auxin in regulating phototropism in monocots?
7. What is a receptor?
8. What is "signal transduction"?
9. Consider Figure 39.11. How might the hormone auxin indirectly alter the external pH of the cell? How might auxin indirectly influence cell elongation? How might auxin indirectly influence the synthesis of new proteins?
10. Define "homeostasis". Discuss 5 examples of homeostasis in plants.
11. What are Gravitotropism and Thigmotropism? What is the hypothesis of how gravitotropism is regulated in roots?
12. Some plants flower only in mid-summer, while others flower only in the fall. What is the mechanism controlling this? What is the role of night-length?
13. What are phytochromes? How are they involved in sensing night length for a plant?
14. What is the overall process regulating flower bud formation from otherwise vegetative tissue?
15. For plants, what are the deleterious problems with and some possible responses against (1) water deficit, (2) oxygen deprivation, (2) salt stress, (3) heat stress, (4) cold stress, (5) herbivory?
16. What are plant antimicrobials?
17. What responses can plants take against viral infection (i.e., what is the immune response of a plant)?